Application of the integrated threat theory to conservation law enforcement.

Interactions between law enforcement agents in conservation (e.g., rangers) and illegal resource users (e.g., illegal hunters) can be violent and sometimes fatal, which negatively affects conservation efforts and people's well-being. Models from social psychology, such as integrated threat theory (ITT) (intergroup interactions shape intergroup emotions, prejudices and perceived threats leading to hostile attitudes or behaviors between groups), are useful in addressing such interactions. Conservation approaches relying mainly on law enforcement have never been investigated using this framework. Using a structured questionnaire, we collected data from 282 rangers in protected and unprotected areas (n = 50) in northern Iran. We applied Bayesian structural equation modeling in an assessment of rangers' affective attitudes (i.e., emotions or feelings that shape attitudes toward a person or object) toward illegal hunters in an ITT framework. Rangers' positive perceptions of illegal hunters were negatively associated with intergroup anxiety (emotional response to fear) and negative stereotypes about a hunter's personality, which mediated the relationship between negative contact and affective attitudes. This suggests that negative contact, such as verbal abuse, may lead rangers to perceive illegal hunters as arrogant or cruel, which likely forms a basis for perceived threats. Rangers' positive contact with illegal hunters, such as playing or working together, likely lowered their perceived realistic threats (i.e., fear of property damage). Perceived realistic threats of rangers were positively associated with negative contacts (e.g., physical harm). The associations we identified suggest that relationships based on positive interactions between rangers and illegal hunters can reduce fear and prejudice. Thus, we suggest that rangers and hunters be provided with safe spaces to have positive interactions, which may help lower tension and develop cooperative conservation mechanisms.

Aplicación de la teoría integrada de la amenaza a la implementación de las leyes de conservación Resumen Las interacciones entre los agentes de la ley de la conservación (p. ej.: guardabosques) y los usuarios ilegales de recursos (p. ej.: cazadores ilegales) pueden ser violentas y a veces fatales, lo que afecta negativamente los esfuerzos de conservación y el bienestar de las personas. Los modelos de la psicología social, como la teoría integrada de la amenaza (TIA) (una amenaza percibida que deriva en prejuicios entre los grupos), tienen un uso potencial para tratar estas interacciones. Nunca se ha usado este marco para investigar las estrategias de conservación que dependen principalmente de la implementación de la ley. Usamos un cuestionario estructurado para recolectar datos de 282 guardabosques en áreas protegidas y no protegidas (n = 50) en el norte de Irán. Aplicamos el modelo de ecuación estructural bayesiano a la evaluación de las actitudes afectivas que tienen los guardabosques (es decir, emociones o sentimientos que forjan la actitud hacia una persona o un objeto) hacia los cazadores ilegales en un marco de TIA. La percepción negativa que tienen los guardabosques de los cazadores ilegales estuvo asociada negativamente con ansiedad intergrupal (la respuesta emocional al miedo) y estereotipos negativos de la personalidad de los cazadores, las cuales mediaron la relación entre el contacto negativo y las actitudes afectivas. Esto sugiere que el contacto negativo, como el abuso verbal, puede causar que los guardabosques perciban a los cazadores ilegales como arrogantes o crueles, lo que probablemente forma una base para las amenazas percibidas. El contacto positivo entre los guardabosques y los cazadores ilegales, como jugar o trabajar juntos, probablemente disminuyó la percepción de las amenazas realistas (es decir, miedo al daño material). La percepción que tienen los guardabosques de las amenazas realistas estuvieron asociadas positivamente con los contactos negativos (p. ej.: daño físico). Las asociaciones que identificamos sugieren que las relaciones basadas en las interacciones positivas entre los guardabosques y los cazadores ilegales pueden reducir el miedo y los prejuicios. Por lo tanto, sugerimos que se les proporcionen espacios seguros a los guardabosques y a los cazadores ilegales para que puedan tener interacciones positivas, lo que podría ayudar a reducir tensiones y a desarrollar mecanismos cooperativos de conservación.

Cattle selectivity by leopards suggests ways to mitigate human-leopard conflict.

Addressing widespread livestock losses to carnivores requires information on which livestock categories are preferentially selected. We analyzed an individual-based database of cattle grazing in forest (n = 932) and having been killed (n = 70) by leopards (Panthera pardus) in the Hyrcanian forest, Iran. We calculated Jacobs' selectivity index for cattle age, sex, and coloration across four scales: the study area as a whole, three sites, nine villages, and 60 cattle owners. Naturally colored cattle were significantly preferred by leopards at all scales in comparison with black and black-and-white cattle, and there was also a preference for males and juveniles at the study area level. More research is needed to see whether cattle losses would decrease if the share of naturally colored individuals in local holdings was reduced and males and juveniles had limited access to forest. We conclude that phenotypic and biologic characteristics of livestock can affect depredation and appeal for more research in this direction, particularly within the predator-prey framework.

Effects of shepherds and dogs on livestock depredation by leopards (Panthera pardus) in north-eastern Iran.

Human-carnivore conflicts over livestock depredation are increasingly common, yet little is understood about the role of husbandry in conflict mitigation. As shepherds and guarding dogs are most commonly used to curb carnivore attacks on grazing livestock, evaluation and improvement of these practices becomes an important task. We addressed this issue by studying individual leopard (Panthera pardus) attacks on sheep and goats in 34 villages near Golestan National Park, Iran. We obtained and analyzed data on 39 attacks, which included a total loss of 31 sheep and 36 goats in 17 villages. We applied non-parametric testing, Poisson Generalized Linear Modelling (GLM) and model selection to assess how numbers of sheep and goats killed per attack are associated with the presence and absence of shepherds and dogs during attacks, depredation in previous years, villages, seasons, ethnic groups, numbers of sheep and goats kept in villages, and distances from villages to the nearest protected areas. We found that 95.5% of losses were inflicted in forests when sheep and goats were accompanied by shepherds (92.5% of losses) and dogs (77.6%). Leopards tended to kill more sheep and goats per attack (surplus killing) when dogs were absent in villages distant from protected areas, but still inflicted most losses when dogs were present, mainly in villages near protected areas. No other variables affected numbers of sheep and goats killed per attack. These results indicate that local husbandry practices are ineffectual and the mere presence of shepherds and guarding dogs is not enough to secure protection. Shepherds witnessed leopard attacks, but could not deter them while dogs did not exhibit guarding behavior and were sometimes killed by leopards. In an attempt to make practical, low-cost and socially acceptable improvements in local husbandry, we suggest that dogs are raised to create a strong social bond with livestock, shepherds use only best available dogs, small flocks are aggregated into larger ones and available shepherds herd these larger flocks together. Use of deterrents and avoidance of areas close to Golestan and in central, core areas of neighboring protected areas is also essential to keep losses down.